3 THE
BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY BASES OF BEHAVIOR 52
4 SENSATION
AND PERCEPTION 90
5 MIND,
CONSCIOUSNESS, AND ALTERNATE STATES 135
6 LEARNING
AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 163
7 MEMORY
195
8 COGNITIVE
PROCESSES 232
9 INTELLIGENCE
AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT 270
10 HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 297
11 MOTIVATION
339
12 EMOTION,
STRESS, AND HEALTH 369
13 UNDERSTANDING
HUMAN PERSONALITY 406
14 PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS 441
15 THERAPIES
FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 477
16 SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
內容試閱：
WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE SHY?
Surveys reveal that more than 50 percent of
college students considerthemselves to be “currently shy”Carducci
Zimbardo, 1995. Most of them say that shyness is an undesirable condition that
has negative personaland social consequences.Another group of students say that
they are “situationally shy.” They feel “shy” in certain situations that are novel,
awkward, or socially pressured, such as blind dates, singles bars, or being put
on the spot to perform in public without preparation. Researchers investigating
shyness in adults were surprised to discover that it is the “not shy” person
who is the rare, unusual breed in the United States and in every other country surveyed
Zimbardo, 1991.
Shyness may be defined as an individual’s discomfort andor
inhibition in interpersonal situations that interferes with pursuing one’s
interpersonal or professional goals. Shyness can be the mild reticence and
social awkwardness many people feel in new situations, but it can escalate into
the extreme of a totally inhibiting fear of people we will discuss this social
phobia in Chapter 14. Many shy people are also introverted; they prefer
solitary, nonsocial activities. Others are “shy extraverts,” publicly outgoing
yet privately shy, preferring to engage in social activities, having the social
skills to do so effectively, yet doubting that others will really like or
respect them Pilkonis Zimbardo, 1979.
So why are some people shy and others are not? One explanation may
be nature. Research evidence suggests that about 10 percent of infants are
“born shy” Kagan, 1994. From birth, these children are unusually cautious and
reserved when they interact with unfamiliar people or situations. A
complementary explanation focuses on nurture. As children, some individuals are
ridiculed, laughed at, or singled out for public shame; others grow up in
families that make “being
loved” contingent on competitive success in
appearance and performance.
A third explanation focuses on culture. Shyness is highest in some Asian
countries, notably Japan and Taiwan, and lowest in Israel, among nine countries
studied Zimbardo, 1991. This difference is attributed in part to cultural
emphases on shame for social failure and obedience to authority in these Asian
countries versus encouragement for taking risks and externalizing blame in
Israel Pines Zimbardo, 1978. A fourth explanation accounts, in part,
for a recent rise in reported prevalence of shyness in the United States: Young
people are intensively involved with
electronic technology. Spending long hours,
typically alone, watching TV, playing video games, surfing the Web, and doing
e-mail is socially isolating and reduces daily face-to-face contact. Heavy use
of the Internet has the potential to make people feel lonely, isolated, and
shyer Shaw Black, 2008.
As shyness gets more extreme, it intrudes on ever more aspects of one’s
life to minimize social pleasures and maximize social discomfort and isolation.
There are some simple concepts and tactics we suggest for shy students to think
about and try out Zimbardo, 1991:
Realize that you are not alone in your
shyness; every person you see is more like you than different from you in his
or her shyness.
Shyness can be modified, even when there
is a genetic component, but it takes dedication
and a resolve to change, as with any
long-standing habit you want to break.
Practice smiling and making eye contact
with most people you meet.
Talk up; speak in a loud, clear voice,
especially when giving your name or asking for information.
Be the first to ask a question or make a
comment in a new social situation. Be prepared with something interesting to say
and say it first; everyone appreciates an “ice breaker.”
Never put yourself down. Instead, think
about what you can do next time to gain the outcome you want.
Focus on making others feel comfortable, especially
searching out those other shy people. Doing so lowers your self-consciousness.
If you are shy, we hope you will adopt these suggestions. Other students
who have followed them have been released from the prison of shyness into a life
filled with newfound liberties.
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