前言
精神异常(insanity)1,是英美法的法律名词,也曾经是医学名词,尽管各自的意义不尽相同。现今认为这只是法律名词,则是因为医学上已经不再使用这样的字词。2
精神异常抗辩:以精神异常为由作为无罪抗辩的理由,必然有模糊与不确定之处。我们很难精确地描述,一个人到底有没有能力,对于自己行为的可能性,进行正常地或合理地选择。也因此,也很难去评量一个人,是否应该对他所做的错误行为负起责任。对于极端或明显精神异常的案例,人们很容易达成共识,而认为行为者不应受到处罚。但是,在许多案例中,行为者并不是如此的精神异常。3
早期的免责观念
疯人、孩童与野兽
最早用来说明为何不处罚疯癫与痴愚者的概念,是来自于对于孩童为何不须处罚的想法。
13世纪英国法官布莱克顿(Henry de Bracton, 12101268 )认为,偷窃行为者若缺乏意志与企图,就不构成偷窃;因此,孩童与疯人就不应受罚。4在他的《英格兰的法律与习惯》(On the Laws and Customs of England, De Legibus et Consuetidinibus Angliae)一文中说道:
肚子里的魔鬼与邪恶的管家
1724年,爱德华阿诺(Edward Arnold,被当地人称为crazy Ned或mad Ned),枪击了汤马士昂斯洛(Thomas Onslow)勋爵,因为阿诺认为昂斯洛派了小魔鬼与恶魔来干扰自己的睡眠与食欲。
阿诺是个怪异、失业的地方人士,靠渔猎和他人救济度日。一系列的人证出庭作证指出,他小时候就会将炙热的煤炭丢到父亲的餐盘里,也会傻笑、说无意义的话、发出像猫头鹰的叫声或叫着布谷。一位前女房东说,他缺乏基本的判断力,有一次还把地毯撕碎后塞一块到耳朵里。好几次他扬言要自杀,或是要求理发师划破他的喉咙。一位地方税吏说,绰号疯诺(mad Ned)的阿诺不久前在她的酒吧喝酒,抱怨昂斯洛勋爵在他的肚子里,其他看热闹的酒客开玩笑说会陪他去找勋爵抱怨,为什么对这个可怜人造成这么特别的困扰。阿诺有时会声称昂斯洛是所有奇怪装置、骚动与地上混乱的原因;而勋爵用虫子、瘟疫等等来折磨他。15
审判过程中,检察官对于被告是否精神异常提出反驳,其反驳的语句可以称为最早的典型论述。16 检察官指出他并非完全失去理性;他的朋友认为他疯了,但是从来不会叫他离开。而且犯罪当天,他买了枪、弹药,也尝试射击。被告还询问路人是否看到勋爵。这些都是目的与计划。最后检察官指出,犯罪后,他逃跑。在狱中,他宣称对自己的所为感到后悔。检察官认为懊悔是最明确的罪证,显示他知晓自己所为是错误的。
旁人的观察,事先预谋,事先计划,事后逃走,事后懊悔,诸如此类,都证明被告不是精神异常。无论是驳斥所谓精神异常,或是指称被告仍旧具有理性,不是真正的精神异常,这些外显行为的证据都一一被提出。
这类质疑,将成为精神异常抗辩历史中,持续存在的背景杂音或抗议之声。
审判最后,法官崔西(Tracy)引用赫尔的经典《英国法庭答辩的历史》(History of the Pleas of the Crown):17
陪审团判定他精神异常而无罪。32海特菲尔德被移送到贝斯莱姆医院(Bethlem Royal Hospital),终老于该院(之后类似个案都面临无期限的监禁)。33厄斯金似乎成功地建立了所谓妄想准则(delusional test),即被告若持续存在着无法抗拒或无法压制的妄想,便可以因此精神异常而无罪。
这两个问题,我们一起回答较为适宜。在每个案子中,我们都应先告知陪审团成员,每个人基本上都先假定是精神正常的,并且具有足够程度之理智为其犯罪行为负责,除非与此假定相反的状况能够获得令陪审团满意的证明,而将此一假定推翻。被告唯有能清楚地证明其在犯行当时,系因精神疾病(disease of the mind)导致理性缺损(defect of reason),以至于无法知晓其行为之本性与特质(nature and quality of the act);或者,其纵使知晓行为之本性与特质,亦不知晓此行为系属错误。向陪审团提出被告是否知晓此行为系属错误之问题的方式,通常是:被告行为当时,是否可以区辨对与错。虽然少见,但我们设想,如果没有明确地告诉陪审团,或仅抽象地描述,被告被控诉行为所涉及的对与错的认识,如此将会让陪审团发生错误。如果被告自己的认识,只是单纯完全针对当时法律的认识,这样可能误导审团认为,被告对于法律的认识与否,就足以定罪。由于法律的原则是,任何人都被视为知晓法律,无须任何证明。如果被告意识到其行为系属不应为之,而该项行为同时违反当时法律,他就该受到处罚。因此,通常的程序是,让陪审团决定,被告是否具有足够程度的理性知晓他所做行为是错误的。此种依照特殊个案所需而为的观察以及解释的程序,我们认为是正确的。
对于所谓局部妄想(partial delusion),或者是局部精神异常(partial insanity),精神科医师反对的理由在于,廷铎法官的观念假设有妄想的病人,可以在如此局限之处受到影响而已,而其他部分,如现实的自我觉察以及自我控制部分则完好无缺。而这样的看法,普遍影响法律人或法官的见解。68依从这样的见解,将使得极度充满妄想的病人,因为在妄想未及的部分,由于表面上看似良好,而不被认为得以豁免刑罚。
就实际临床个案来说,其实只有少数的妄想症病患,可能在妄想所及的部分确实受到影响,而对于其他事务,则是可以提出合理的辨别与判断。但是,对于妄想所涉及的部分,不仅仅只是辨别与判断受到影响,患者也常常无法克制其妄想所带来的冲动。
比如精神分裂症的病患,可能有妄想症状,但是,他的认知与判断,在其他妄想未涉及的领域,也可能受损;同样地,他的冲动控制与行为控制,就算未受到妄想症状影响,也可能有明显的障碍。但是这样的病患,即使在精神疾病的急性期,对于法律上所认为的是非对错,也未必会受损,但是,他们却无法依循自己的是非判断来行为。
又如躁症病患,他对于法律上抽象认识的对错与否,可能还是可以正确辨别,但是对于行为的后果,则可能有不合现实的想象,或是冲动与行为控制能力根本就付之阙如。
最基本的问题在于,只凭借认知准则(cognitive test)的马克诺顿法则,通常在相当严重的精神疾病患者身上不适用。严重精神疾病患者,通常是对于事物或自己行为之事涉及的性质或本性,脱离常轨而不同于一般人,但是,如果仅就法律上所称之是非对错,多半都还可以辨别。
就事论事,以摆在眼前的案例来看,海特菲尔德因妄想而无罪,奥斯福因妄想而无罪,贝林罕则判处绞刑。马克诺顿法则,可以区辨这三个案例吗?
海特菲尔德案的辩护律师厄斯金对于本案的批评就直接点出,马克诺顿知道自己在做什么,而又无法阻止自己依妄想去做。所以,对于这个判决或法则,连马克诺顿自己都不符合。69
事实上,马克诺顿获判因精神异常而无罪(not guilty on the ground of insanity),是因为法官、检察官、辩护律师与陪审团,都接受他无法抗拒自己的妄想或疾病所带来的想法或冲动。
有趣的是,这些争议与疑问在贵族院答询当天都没有发生。
当贵族院聆听完廷铎大法官领衔提出的意见后,并没有人对于本案是否适用马克诺顿法则提出意见,倒是获得了好些赞成与支持的评论。一天辛苦议事后,贵族院成员与法官们在互相赞许与祝贺声中结束了本案。70注释
1Insanity,笔者译为精神异常。许多学者译为心神丧失,然而国际上讨论insanity一词所涵盖之法律状态,多半也包括刑法里,因精神或心智问题而无罪或因精神或心智问题而减轻其刑之两类情形,因此,将之译为精神异常,用以包含无罪或减责之抗辩理由。另英美法中,还有所谓局部精神异常(partial insanity)的讨论,如果这时翻译是使用局部心神丧失一词,个人认为可能造成概念或语义更为混淆,故取前译。此外,insanity其实在19世纪以前,等同于精神疾病之同义字,用精神异常一词,也可区隔其他现行或者是尚在流通的医学用语。
2Thomas Maeder: Crime and Madness: the Origins and Evolution of the Insanity Defense. New York, Harper & Row, 1985, p 38.
3Richard J Bonnie, John C Jeffries Jr. & Peter W Low: A Case Study in the Insanity Defense: the Trial of John W Hinckley Jr. New York, Foundation Press, 2008, p 4.
4Nigel Walker: Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one: the Historical Perspective. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 1968, p 26. 原文为:for a crime is not committed unless the will to harm be present. Misdeeds are distinguished both by will and by intention [andtheft is not committed without the thought of thieving]. And then there is what can be said about the child and madman, for the one is protected by his innocence of design, the other by the misfortune of his deed. In misdeeds we look to the will and not the outcome.
5Ibid., p 27.
6Ibid., p 28.
7Ibid., p 36.
8Matthew Hale 经典著作,《英国法庭答辩的历史》(History of the Pleas of the Crown),一书可以在网络上找到全文影像下载, https : archiveorgdetailshistoriaplacito00wilsgoog。此外,可以取得重印本。原书第29页原文:Ideocy, or fatuity a nativitate vel dementia naturalis; such a one is described by Fitzherbert, who knows not to tell 20s. nor knows who is his father or mother, nor knows his own age; but if he knows letters, or can read by the instruction of another, then he is no ideot.
9原书第30页原文:Again, a total alienation of the mind or perfect madness; this excuseth from the guilty of felony and treason d; de quibus infra. This is that, which in my lord Cokes Pleas of the Crown, p 6. is calld by him absolute madness, and total deprivation of memory.
10Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 37-38.
11Ibid., p 39. 原文为:
In criminal cases, as felony &c., the act of a madman shall not be imputed to him, for that in these cases actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, and he is amens idest sine mente, without his mind or discretion; and furious solo furore punitur,a madman is only punished by his madness. And so it is of an infant until he be of age of 14, which in law is accounted the age discretion.
斜体部分为拉丁文,翻译为英文是:依序为does not make a person guilty unless the mind be guilty of an act,crazy that is without a mind,以及furious anger alone punished。
12Ibid., p 40-41.
13Crime and Madness, p 9.
14Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 52.
15Crime and Madness, p 9-10.
16Ibid., p 10.
17Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one p 38. 原文为:[S]ome people that have a competent use of reason in respect of some subjects, are yet under a particular dementia in respect of some particular discourses. [T]his partial insanity seems not to excuse The best measure that I can think of is this: such person as, laboring under melancholy distempers, hath yet ordinarily as great understanding as ordinarily a child of fourteen years hath, is such a person as may be guilty of treason or felony.
18Ibid., p 56. 原文为:If he was under the visitation of God, and could not distinguish between good and evil, and did not know what he did, though he committed the greatest offence yet he could not be guilty of any offence against any law whatsoever: for quilt arises from the mind, and the wicked will and intention of the man. [I]t is not every frantic and idle humour of a man that will exempt him form justiceit must be a man that is totally deprived of his understanding and memory, and doth not know what he is doing, no more than an infant, than a brute or wild beast, such a one is never the object of punishment; therefore, I must leave it to your consideration, whether the condition this man was in, as it represented to you on one side or the other, doth shew a man, who knew what he was doing, and was able to distinguish whether he was doing good or evil, and understood what he did.
19Crime and Madness, p 10.
20Ibid., p 12.
21Ibid., p 12. 以及Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one p 63. 原文为:My Lords in some sense, every crime proceeds from insanity. All cruelty, all brutality, all revenge, all injustice, is insanity. There were philosophers, in ancient times, who held this opinion, as a strict maxim of their sect; and my lords, this opinion is right in philosophy, but dangerous in judicature.
22Crime and Madness, p 12. 原文为:That one might be acquitted in the case of a total permanent want of reason or a total temporary want, but not otherwise. If there was a partial degree of insanity mingled with a degree of reason sufficient to have restrained those design; a faculty to distinguish the nature of actions; to discern the difference between moralgood and evil; then, upon the fact of the offense proved, the judgment of the law must take place.
23Ibid., p 12.
24Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 74.
25Crime and Madness, p 15.
26Ibid., p 12-13.
27Ibid., p 13.
28Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 77.
29Crime and Madness, p 13.原文为:Except in the total idiot. Reason is not driven from her seat, but distraction sits down upon it along with her, trembling, upon it, and frightens her from her propriety.
30引自Lord-Chancellor Erskine: Speech in Defence of Hadfield, 1800. 原文为:Such unhappy patients are unconscious, therefore, except at short intervals, even of external objects, or at least are wholly incapable of understanding their relations. Such persons, and such persons alone except idiots, are wholly deprived of their understandings, in the Attorney-Generals sense of that expression. But these cases are not only extremely rare, but can never become the subjects of judicial difficulty. There can be but one judgment concerning them.
31Crime and Madness, p 13-14. 原文为:Such persons often reason with a subtlety which puts in the shade the ordinary conceptions of mankind: their conclusions are just, and frequently profound; but the premises form which they reason, WHEN WITHIN THE RANGE OF THE MALADY, are uniformly false―not false from any defect of knowledge or judgment; but, because a delusive image, the inseparable companion of real insanity, is thrust upon the subjugated understanding, incapable of resistance, because unconscious of attack.
32Ibld. p 15.
33审判后一个月,国王通过精神异常犯罪者安全监护法(Act for the Safe Custody of Insane Persons Charged with Offenses)。海特菲尔德被送到贝斯莱姆医院。1802年谣传他杀死其他受刑人,几年后又传说他逃出医院,在肯特郡多佛被捕。1840年,总检察长探视这位病人后表示,对于当天的话题,他可以相当理性地谈论,但是,偶尔会陷入强烈妄想中,如果释放他会相当不安全。1841年,69岁的海特菲尔德死于该医院。见 Crime and Madness, p 16.
34Ibld. p 17.
35Ibid., p 18. 原文为:Are we to conclude, in fact, the prisoner to be mad, [simply] because he has done an act of madness? If so, Gentlemen, this very atrocious and extraordinarily wicked act carries with it its own defence; and we may do what we please against the justice of the country, provided our conduct be sufficiently daring, and boast an atrocity beyond the wickedness of common life.
36Ibid., p 19.
37Ibid., p 19. 原文为:No circumstances of injury, however aggravated, could warrant any man for taking the law into his own hands, and taking away the life of an individual. Neither could the plea of insanity be of any avail in such a case, unless it could be proved that the prisoner, at the time he committed the act, was so far deranged in his mind, as not to be capable of judging between right and wrong.
38Ibid., p 19.
39Ibid., p 19.
40Ibid., p 21.
41由于英美采用陪审团制度,陪审团是代表民众的常识进行有罪无罪事实之判定(verdict),法官对于陪审团,做出有罪无罪判定前,会提供法律见解,以利陪审团决定,称为陪审团指引(instruction for jury)。
42Crime and Madness, p 21. 原文为:If some controlling disease was, in truth, the acting power within him, which he could not resist, the defendant would not be responsible. The question is(前段文字,系上述文献未提及的部分,则来自前述David Oscar Williams Jr一文)whether the evidence given proves a disease in the mind as of a person quite incapable of distinguishing right from wrongwhether the prisoner was labouring under the species of insanity which satisfies you that he was quite unaware of the nature, character, and consequences of the act he was committing, or, in other words, whether he was under the influence of a diseased mind, and was really unconscious at the time he was committing the act, that it was a crime.
43被某种疾病控制,而无法抗拒,这一段文字被认为是不可抗拒之冲动法则的源始之一。
引用来源主要来自于David Oscar Williams Jr., Insanity, Criminal Responsibility and Durham. William and Mary Review of Virginia Law 1955, 103: 2. 我无法取得其前述文献原稿,但可以在网络搜寻http:scholarship.law.wm.eduwmrvalvol2iss25并下载。吴景芳教授也曾引用,见《刑法学研究》(第一册),页53。此外,Crime and Madness也引用这段来解释不可抗拒之冲动法则,见该书48页第2段。
44Crime and Madness, p 21.
45奥斯福被送到贝斯莱姆医院。十四年后,他的医疗记录说,他行为总是彬彬有礼,完全合作,空闲时间用于有意义的阅读与研究。事实上他学会法文、德文、意大利文、西班牙文、拉丁文与希腊文,并且开始学小提琴。他只要努力,表现就十分杰出,如编织与房屋粉刷,也是疗养院的西洋棋(国际象棋)与英式跳棋冠军。1864年他被送至新开的布洛德莫犯罪精神疗养院(Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum)。1867年内政部长释放他,条件是离开英国永不返回。他就去了墨尔本。见Crime and Madness, p 22.
46伦敦中央刑事法庭当时位于老贝利街上,因此也常常称为The Old Bailey,而法庭历年来完整的审判过程可以在http:www.oldbaileyonline.org 找到全文。关于这件著名审判,则可以参考完整重印本,The Queen v. Daniel McNaughton, 1843 State Trial Report. In Daniel McNaughton: His Trial and the Aftermath. Edited by Donald J West & Alexander Walk. London: Gaskell Books, 1977, p 12-73.
47托利党人(Tories),英国17世纪至19世纪期间的政党。1678年,工商资产阶级为主的辉格党(Whig)提出王位排除法令,试图剥夺詹姆斯二世的继位权。反对的保守人士在此时获得托利党称呼。此后,该党经过许多转变与重组,逐渐成为目前保守党的前身。当今保守党有时仍被称为托利党。
48Crime and Madness, p 23.
49Ibid., p 23-4.
50关于这位著名的个案到底姓氏McNaughton怎么写才正确,至今还是历史悬案。参见 Crime and Madness, p 24的注解。深入理解可以参考Richard Morgan: Knowing Right from Wrong: the Insanity Defense of Daniel McNaughtan. New York: The Free Press, 1981. 其中专门讨论其姓名的一小章(xi-xiii页):The Spelling of Daniel McNaughtans Name. 在 Daniel McNaughton: His Trial and the Aftermath中,也收录一篇由伯纳德戴蒙(Bernard L Diamond)所写的On the Spelling of Daniel MNaughtens Name. 其实,就所引用文献就可以看到,个别作者使用的拼字就有差异。在本文中,除非依照所参考文献原文,否则统一使用McNaughton。
51Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 92.
52Crime and Madness, p 25. 原文为:This defense is a difficult one at all time; for while, on the other hand, everyone must anxious that an unconscious being should not suffer, in the other hand, the public safety requires that this defense should not be too readily listened to. The whole question will turn upon this: if you believe the prisoner at the bar at the time he committed this act was not a responsible agent; if you believe that when he fired the pistol he was incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong; of you believe that he was under the influence and control of some disease of the mind which prevented him from being conscious that he was committing a crime; if you believe that he did not know he was violating the law both of God and man; then, undoubtedly, he is entitled to your acquittal. But it is my dutyto tell you that nothing short of that will excuse him upon the principle of English law.
53Ibid., p 25-6.
54Ibid., p 26.
55Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 90-91.
56The Queen v. Daniel McNaughton, 1843 State Trial Report, p 53. 原文为:The Tories in my native city have compelled me to do this. They follow and persecute me wherever I go, and have entirely destroyed my peace of mind. They followed me to France, into Scotland and all over England; in fact they follow me wherever I go. They have accused me of crimes of which I am not guilty; in fact they wish to murder me. It can be proved by evidence. Thats all I have to say.
57Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 94. 原文为:I trust that I have satisfied you by these authorities that the disease of partial insanity can exit that it can lead to a partial or total aberration of the moral senses and affections, which may render the wretched patient incapable of resisting the delusion, and lead him to commit crimes for which morally he cannot be held responsible.
58Ibid., p 94.
59应该是爱德华汤马士孟罗(Edward Thomas Monro, 1789-1856)。这家族的人长期 担任贝斯莱姆医院负责医师。
60The Queen v. Daniel McNaughton, State Trial Report 1843, p 71.
61Ibid., p 73.
62Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 94.
63Thomas Maeder: Crime and Madness, p 30.
64Crime and Insanity in England. Volume one, p 95.
65`The House of Lords and the Judges Rules, p 79. 中文翻译部分,参考了吴景芳:《英美法上精神异常认定标准之研究》,收录于吴景芳:《刑事法研究》(第一册)。台北:五南,1999,页55至57。
问题原文为:2nd.-What are the proper questions to submitted to the jury when a person, alleged to be afflicted with insane delusion respecting one or more particular subjects or persons, is charged with the commission of a crime murder, for example, and the insanity is set up as a defence?
3rd.-In what terms ought the question to be left to the jury as to the prisoners state of mind at the time when the act was committed?
法官的回答原文为:And as these two questions appear to us to be more conveniently answered together, we have to submit our opinion to be, that the jury ought to be told in all cases that every man is to be presumed to be sane, and to possess a sufficient degree of reason to be responsible for his crimes, until the contrary be proved to their satisfaction; and that to establish a defence on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or, if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong. The mode of putting the latter part of the question to the jury on these occasions had generally been, whether the accused at the time of doing the act knew the difference between right and wrong; which mode, though rarely, if ever, leading to any mistake with the jury, is not, as we conceive, so accurate when put generally, and in the abstract, as when put with reference to the partys knowledge of right and wrong in respect to the very act with which he is charged. If the question were to be put as to the knowledge of the accused, solely and exclusively with reference to the law of the land, it might tend to confound the jury, by inducing them to believe that an actual knowledge of the law of the land was essential in order to lead to a conviction; whereas the law is administrated upon the principle that every one must be taken conclusively to know it, without proof that he does know it. If the accused was conscious that the act was one which he ought not to do, and if that act was at the same time contrary to the law of the land, he is punishable; and the usual course, therefore, has been, to leave the question to the jury, whether the party accused had a sufficient degree of reason to know that he was doing an act that was wrong; and this course we think is correct, accompanied with such observations and explanations as circumstances of each particular case may require.
66The House of Lords and the JudgesRules, p 74. 原文为:If a person under an insane delusion as to existing facts, commits an offence in consequence thereof, is he thereby excused?
回答原文为:To which question the answer must of course depend on the nature of the delusion: but, making the same assumption as we did before, namely, that he labours under such partial delusion only, and is not in other respects insane, we think he must be considered in the same situation as to responsibility as if the facts with respect to which the delusion exists were real. For example, if under the influence of his delusion he supposes another man to be in the act of attempting to take away his life, and he kills that man, as he supposes, in self-defence, he would be exempt from punishment. If his delusion was that the deceased had inflicted a serious injury to his character and fortune, and he killed him in revenge for such supposed injury, he would be liable to punishment.
67Ibid., p 79-80.
68Crime and Insanity in England. Vol1, p 91.
69Lawrie Reznek: Evil or Ill? Justifying the Insanity Defense. London, Routledge, 1997, p 21.
70Crime and Insanity in England. Vol1, p 91以及The House of Lords and the JudgesRules, p80-81.〔不可不知的重要人物〕
再生之旅: 从弒君者到正直良善的公民
重生的自由人
1868 年2月7日,一名自称约翰佛利曼( John Freeman)的男子在墨尔本上岸,他自述四十三岁,应该比实际年龄小两岁,后来找到房屋粉刷的工作。墨尔本是个新兴城市,从1851年的十万人,到1868年当时已经有七十万人。1
1881 年3月16日,他娶了小自己二十岁的珍鲍恩(Jane Bowen)为妻(是这位女士的第三次婚姻),他自称五十三岁,比实际年龄小五岁。他们在墨尔本近郊居住,后来逐渐搬到接近市区的地方。随着事业的进展,身份地位也逐渐提高,佛利曼不再称自己是粉刷工,而是绅士、作家。
1889年,澳大利亚举行维多利亚女王七十寿诞的庆祝活动,佛利曼受邀参加总督的接待会。港口的船舶、公共建筑以及公园里,到处飘扬着英国国旗与象征维多利亚女王的旗帜,佛利曼与其他政商名流、军事、宗教各界代表等人,一同出席总督的接待会。
1888年他出版了墨尔本第一本类似现代城市导览和旅游的书籍,《墨尔本生活光与影》(Lights and Shadows of Melbourne Life)。2书中盛赞墨尔本市的繁荣与忙碌,也描写了下层居民的生活样貌、贫困与失业、酒吧、旅舍、市场和街头手推车摊贩。由于接近一般人民生活,得到各界好评。他也在报纸写一些短篇故事,跻身新闻工作者的行列。3
佛利曼将书寄给二十一年没联络的老友英国人黑顿 (Haydon),并写道:
我杀了维多利亚
1840年6月10日,维多利亚女王与夫婿阿尔伯特亲王驾车出行,一位男子爱德华奥斯福在路旁向两人致敬,然后取出一对手枪射击,两次都没击中。旁人立刻捉住一位男子,但是似乎弄错对象,反而是奥斯福自己站出来说,是我,我做的,我投降。5 6
群众大喊,杀了他!杀了他!奥斯福冷静地说,你们不需要使用暴力,是我做的,我会安静地跟你们走。警察将奥斯福带到西敏寺分局讯问。场面相当混乱,警察只搜集到基本资料,没有进行正式的讯问,但是房间里来来去去很多人,从警局探长到皇室管理员、内政大臣代表、国会街驻派医师,一群可以来了解事情的人,都陆续讯问过奥斯福,以便回报自己的上级。7
搜索他的公寓时,发现一个名为青年英格兰(Young England)的革命团体之成员间通信。信中详列其组织的服仪规定、弹药库、假名与伪装,但是不知道团体的目的。后来发现,这些文章都是奥斯福一人所写,这个团体只存在他的脑袋里。8
审判原本预订于6月23日开始,但是辩护律师要求找来其他人证,因此延迟到7月9日。
奥斯福于犯行前一个月买了一对手枪、火药筒、并且以目标范围练习试射。犯行前一周,他购买更多铜帽与子弹。辩护律师提出奥斯福具有精神异常遗传的证据,以及几位可以证明他行为异常的人证。9 他的祖父精神异常,而后在疯人院度过晚年,自认为自己是教宗或圣保罗。奥斯福母亲说自己的前夫即犯人的生父,也是疯的。奥斯福的生父有时候会烧掉银行的单据,而且常常扬言要自杀。在她怀小奥斯福时,他会狰狞地做鬼脸,像狒狒般跳跃,而且曾击倒过她一次,造成头部骨折。哺乳时,他还曾用一只锉刀刺她的胸部。而奥斯福的弟弟是个白痴。奥斯福母亲说,奥斯福自小就是个麻烦、令人不安的人物。有时会无法解释地哭泣数回,或突然出现破坏行为,从忧愁转换成歇斯底里地发笑,有时相当热情,有时极端冷酷。他曾握拳击打母亲的鼻子,有次他跳上一位怀孕妇女的马车大叫吓人,结果被警察带回家。他都不觉得自己这些行为是错的。奥斯福曾经短暂受雇于牧者与羊群(Shepherd and Flock)酒吧,但是表现不佳。他常丢下自己的工作而呆坐着、哭泣或狂笑。一位警员问他在笑什么?他回答说,一位老女人喝太多琴酒了,这让每个人都觉得好笑。警员说,现在这里可没有老女人,他说,对,这儿没有。有次顾客要黑啤酒,老板要奥斯福装瓶起来,奥斯福用漏斗堵住瓶口,然后将瓶子倒着放,结果啤酒漏满整个篮子。
五位医师莅庭作证。一位是验尸官,另有几位专擅精神疾病,都作证指出他精神不正常。10 著名的汤马士何杰金(Thomas Hodgkin)11认为他有意志的缺损(lesion of will),没办法控制自己的行为,当时著名的精神科医师约翰康诺里(John Connolly)则认为,从颅相外观看来,他有脑部疾病。12
奥斯福被控叛国。陪审团判定他因精神异常而无罪,但是不确定他的枪支是否真的装有子弹。13 奥斯福被送到贝斯莱姆医院,直到1867年获释。
等候女王发落14
贝斯莱姆医院是伦敦市长久以来安置精神病患的医院。1815年搬到新址之前,你可以付一便士,到医院窥探病人的古怪行为(星期二免费),1814年当年,有九万六千名访客。15
奥斯福入住时有四百名病患,85名在精神异常犯罪者院区(criminal lunatic wing)。刚去的半年内,他和詹姆士海特菲尔德应该常常碰面。海特菲尔德在1800年因为在剧院内向国王开枪,于审判后一个月,因为刚通过的精神异常犯罪者安全监护法(Act for the safe Custody of Insane Persons Charged with Offenses)而被送到贝斯莱姆医院。至于病人何时可以离开呢?法律规范是,需等候女王发落(At Her Majestys Pleasure)16的不定期住院,其实释放时间多半是遥遥无期。
奥斯福在1840年7月18日入住时,海特菲尔德已经住了四十年了。1841年1月23日,69岁的海特菲尔德死于该医院。17 18直到1864年,贝斯莱姆医院的精神异常犯罪者院区关闭,所有人移到布洛德莫这所精神异常犯罪者专属医院。海特菲尔德与奥斯福,见证了精神异常犯罪者院区的全程始末。
1852年,贝斯莱姆医院开始由第一任负责医师威廉胡德(William Charles Hood)管理,还有一位助手乔治黑顿(George Henry Haydon)。胡德相信当时人道取向的治疗模式,认为社会心理治疗方法可以改善病人状况。19黑顿与奥斯福同年,是位相当开明的士绅,年轻时也是位探险家,曾经深入澳大利亚探险,也出版了好几本关于澳大利亚风土民情与探险经历的书籍。20
黑顿一直在这医院服务了三十七年,直到1889年退休。黑顿很快留意到奥斯福,并且说奥斯福相当正常,而且一直如此,他成为奥斯福的导师与拯救者。21奥斯福对于黑顿所描述的澳大利亚,也充满了憧憬与想象。22
在贝斯莱姆医院,表现良好的病患可以得到较多的生活空间与较好的待遇。例如,女性可协助清洁和编织,男性可以协助粉刷、照顾花园和工作坊。奖励是给予男性烟草,或是享受一天一次的面包、乳酪与小杯啤酒。231854年,奥斯福的医疗记录说,他行为总是彬彬有礼,完全合作,空闲时间都用于有意义的阅读与研究。事实上他学会法文、德文、意大利文、西班牙文、拉丁文与希腊文,并且开始学小提琴。他只要努力,表现就十分杰出,如编织与房屋粉刷,也是疗养院的西洋棋与英式跳棋冠军。
1864年他被送至新成立的布洛德莫精神病罪犯收容所(Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum)。虽然觉得自己不可能被释放,不过,奥斯福终于拥有了自己的房间,而不需要和其他病人同住一室。在胡德医师与黑顿的协助下,奥斯福开始请求内政大臣释放他。24在呈交给内政单位的文件中,胡德医师不断强调,奥斯福在他所观察的十多年间,没有任何精神异常的表现等等。但是,首度请求遭到回绝。25
1867年内政大臣换人,胡德医师与黑顿再次协助奥斯福。这次内政大臣终于下令释放他,条件则是离开英国永不返回。26但是,在法律上,如果奥斯福已经不再是精神异常者,并没有理由在无法律根据的情形下,获释并被送到澳大利亚。有趣的是,内政单位认为这应该不是问题,这只是个建议,奥斯福应该会自愿去澳大利亚。奥斯福当然同意。27由于这是趟自愿的长途旅程,内政单位无法提供旅费,而奥斯福虽然在医院中工作多年,也有些许收入,但是,还是在黑顿的资助下,奥斯福才得以负担多少英镑的船票,支付这趟近七十天的航程。28
因此,由一位大都会警局(Metropolitan Police)的侦查部门主管带领十二位人员,为奥斯福拍照、纪录,并且告诉他如果回来,就会立即遭逮捕拘禁(这应该是没有法律根据的说法,不过总是个官方说法)。三十张照片发送到大都会警局各部门去。10月2日国务大臣发出释放令;11月底,他被送到普利茅斯港一艘船上,等待12月3日前往澳大利亚维多利亚港。29
尾声
1900 年4月23日,1822年4月9日在英格兰伯明翰出生的爱德华奥斯福,以约翰佛利曼的自由人身份在澳大利亚墨尔本过世,享年七十八岁,而后葬于墨尔本公共墓园(Melbourne General Cemetery),当时没有人知道他过去的真实身份。直到1953年,黑顿的后裔将一部分书信捐赠给澳大利亚国家图书馆(还记得,黑顿是澳大利亚早期的探险者之一),才让好事的历史学者揭开了这段光与影的重生之旅。30
注释
1Barrie Charles: Kill the Queen: The Eight Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria. Amberley Publishing: Stroud 2012, p 19.
2这本书,可以在https:archive.orgdetailslightsshadowsofm00free下载,也可在网络书店上购买到重印本。
3Kill the Queen, p 20.
4Ibid., p 21.
5Thomas Maeder: Crime and Madness: the Origins and Evolution of the Insanity Defense. Harper & Row, Publishers: New York 1985, p 19.
6Kill the Queen, p 14.
7Ibid., p 15.
8Ibid., p 16-17.
9Crime and Madness, p 20.
10Ibid., p 21.
11汤马士何杰金(Thomas Hodgkin,17981866)是著名的英国医师与病理学家,医学上所称何杰金氏淋巴瘤,就是以其所发现命名。精神医学并非他的专门,当然,其时也没有所谓精神医学专科或精神医学专家证人的制度。
12Kill the Queen, p 19.
13Crime and Madness, p 21.
14Paul Thomas Murphy: Shooting Victoria: Madness, Mayhem and the Rebirth of the British Monarchy. Pegasus Books: New York 2012, p 123.
15Kill the Queen, p 19.
16等候英女王发落(At Her Majestys pleasure,时称为Queens pleasure)是英国及英联邦国家的法律文件用语,针对犯人入狱或至医院等其他场所予以羁留时刑期之长短的决定。这判决是指犯人必须持续羁留,直到不再具有危险性,女王会视其表现予以赦免; 实际上,通常是终身监禁。
17Crime and Madness, p 16.
18Shooting Victoria, p 123.
19Jenny Sinclair: A Walking Shadow: the Remarkable Double Life of Edward Oxford. Arcade: Victoria 2012, p 68.
20Ibid., p 75.
21Kill the Queen, p 19.
22A Walking Shadow, p 74.
23Kill the Queen, p 20.
24A Walking Shadow, p 75.
25Ibid., p 80.
26Crime and Madness, p 22.
27A Walking Shadow, p 81.
28Ibid., p 83.
29Kill the Queen, p 20.
30Ibid., p 22-23.00以疯狂之名第二章马克诺顿法则与不可抗拒之冲动
第二章
马克诺顿法则与不可抗拒之冲动
马克诺顿法则之个别元素
刑法学者吴景芳指出,马克诺顿法则有五个关键概念2,分别是:心智疾病(disease of the mind)3、理性缺损(defect of reason)、知晓(know)、行为之本性与特质(nature and quality of the act)以及错误(wrong)。而国内外文献,主要也是针对这几个概念加以讨论。
4.行为之本性与特质
英国学者曾解释本性(nature)为物理性质,特质(quality)则为道德性质,但其后,不论是本性或特质,英美通说皆指称系物理之性质。16
在美国法庭的实际审理程序里,这段文句时而遭到省略,更常是未加以说明,或是认为对于被告是否知晓自己对错与否,并没有附加更多意义。背后的理由应该是认为,如果被告无法知晓行为的本性与特质,他就不可能知道自己的行为是错的。17
所谓物理性质与道德性质的区分,出现在英国寇德尔(Codere)案件里。该案试图提出本性(nature)为物理性质,特质(quality)为道德特质,但不为法庭所采纳18。该案首席法官瑞丁(Reading)认为二者皆属物理性质。19这也造成马克诺顿法则在英国还是保留较为严格的解释,而与美国法庭有所不同。
所谓行为的物理性质,是指犯罪行为本身的物理性质,或是实质行为是如何如何。而道德性质则是强调其行为可能的后果。因为在许多法庭中,给陪审团的说明常常是用本性与后果(nature and consequences),或是本性、特质以及后果(nature, character and consequences),来取代本性与特质。
马克诺顿法则的拥护者,学者霍尔也认为本性与特质是同义词,且非属道德层面的范畴。他同时认为,知晓行为之本性与特质,与下一个概念是非之认识,是结合为一,并非二者择一的。20
学者郭德斯坦则认为,知晓,以及行为之本性与特质,是互相牵连的。广义的知晓,伴随着广义的行为之本性与特质,反之亦然。21
换句话说,如果我们对于知晓给予较为广义的界定,对于行为之本性与特质也赋予较为广义的意涵,这就包含着情绪上的理解,以及理解行为的后果等等。
如果被告自己的认识,只是单纯完全针对当时法律(law of the land)的认识,如此可能误导陪审团认为,被告对于法律的认识与否,就足以将之定罪。由于法律的原则是,任何人都被视为知晓法律而无须任何证明,如果被告意识到其行为系属不应为之,而该项行为同时违反当时法律,他就该受到处罚。
就马克诺顿案廷铎法官的看法,他所指涉的,如果单就字面意义看来,是指法律上的是非对错。但是,沃克认为,廷铎的说法应该有两点:第一,只有该项行为同时违反当时法律(contrary to the law of the land),才有处罚的问题;第二,问题在于,被告是否意识到其行为系属不应为之(ought not to do)。
沃克以为廷铎的不应为之,显然就是指道德上的错误。他陈述以下几点:24
雷的举例明确又讽刺地指出,只去计较一个人是否对于单一行为,无论是杀人或犯罪行为,本身是对是错,就想依据这么简单的原则,来鉴别这个人对于事物的辨别能力,是多贫瘠而无用的概念。雷举出一个当时精神医学界认为是不同于以往的诊断,所谓局部道德狂躁症(partial moral mania), 亦即虽然精神异常但智力不受影响,来借以说明为何认知准则不合时宜:31